EPIS Basics
A weekly series of short articles — max. 500 words — explaining key theories, influential personalities, and political regimes in foreign and security policy. Complex concepts made accessible, one entry at a time.
Hybrid Warfare
Hybrid warfare is a contested concept. In its broadest form, it can be described as the use of different actors and different types of warfare. Specifically, actors may include regular military units, guerilla fighters, and terrorists. Combatants can also employ various tactics, ranging from phys…
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was an Indian lawyer and anti-colonial activist. He is best known for “satyagraha,” his nonviolent opposition to British colonialism. In addition to peaceful non-cooperation, “satyagraha” emphasised non-possession and religious tolerance. The latter meant that despite supporting in…
Absolutism
Absolutism asserted that by divine right, all power should be centred in the hands of the reigning monarch. To enable absolutism, monarchs relied on a professional standing army and a large bureaucratic apparatus to execute their will. Often, absolutist monarchs showcased their power in lavish p…
Friction and Fog of War
“Everything in war is simple, but the simplest thing is difficult.” This quote by Clausewitz encapsulates the meaning of “friction”. The concept refers to minor problems in implementing a battle plan. These issues accumulate, constituting the difference between a plan and its implementation. Rel…
Pol Pot
As the leader of the Khmer Rouge, Pol rose to power in 1975 in the aftermath of the Cambodian civil war. The Khmer Rouge were a radical communist movement in Cambodia. Trying to establish a self-sufficient agrarian utopia, Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge forced millions into forced labour. The resulting fa…
Natech Disasters
The “Double Disaster”: Natech stands for Natural-Hazard-Induced Technological accidents. It describes a scenario where a natural event (e.g., an earthquake) triggers a technological failure (e.g., a chemical leak or nuclear meltdown). Complexity of Response: They are harder to manage because emer…
Treaty of Versailles
The 1919 Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty ending the First World War between Germany and the Allied Powers of Great Britain, the US, and France. Defeated Germany had to pay reparations and limit its army to 100’000 men. Germany further lost its colonies and made territorial concessions in …
Josip Broz Tito
Tito-Stalin Split: Defied the USSR in 1948, proving that a communist state could remain independent from Moscow’s direct control and influence. Self-Management: Implemented a unique economic system where workers managed their own enterprises, diverging from the Soviet-style command economy. Broth…
Governmental Politics Model
The governmental politics model posits that separation of power does not lead to a division of power. Rather, multiple actors with different agendas have to share power. This means that contrary to the rational actor model, states are not unitary actors. Rather, the governmental politics model be…
Energy Security & Independence
Availability and Affordability: True energy security means a state has an uninterrupted supply of energy at a price that does not cripple the economy. Diversification: To achieve independence, nations must diversify both their energy sources (renewables, nuclear, gas) and their suppliers to avoid…
Anwar Sadat
Sadat became Egyptian president in 1970 following Nasser’s death. Despite launching the Yom Kippur War to alleviate the trauma of Egypt’s defeat during the Six-Day War, Sadat sought closer ties to the US. Hence, Sadat was open to US-mediated peace efforts when the tide turned against Egypt during…
Political Warfare
The term political warfare has been used differently throughout history. In the West, US Diplomat George Kennan significantly influenced the understanding of political warfare. In his 1948 memorandum “Organizing Political Warfare,” Kennan described political warfare as the hostile employment of a…
Augusto Pinochet
A general in the Chilean army, Pinochet took power in a military coup in 1973. Under Pinochet, approximately 40,000 critics and suspected communists were imprisoned, tortured or killed. Besides political oppression, Pinochet introduced free-market reforms influenced by Milton Friedman. Facing int…
Hugo Grotius
Mare Liberum: Pioneered “freedom of the seas,” arguing that oceans are international territory, a core principle of modern maritime law. Just War Theory: Defined legal and moral limits for conflict, asserting that war must have a legitimate cause and follow specific rules. Secular Natural Law: Ar…
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nasser’s presidency (1956-1970) established Egypt as a significant player in the Middle East and saw the rise of Nasserism. A variant of Arab Socialism tailored to Nasser, Nasserism advocated anti-colonialism, socialist policies, and the unity of Arab nations. Nasserism won popularity throughout …
International Criminal Court
In The Hague, the Netherlands, the International Criminal Court prosecutes individuals based on the 2002 Rome Statute. The Rome Statute allows for the prosecution of individuals who committed genocide, crimes of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. In contrast to the International…
Belt and Road Initiative
Launched in 2013, the Belt and Road Initiative is central to Xi Jinping’s foreign policy. Under the Belt and Road Initiative, China provides loans to countries to develop infrastructure. These infrastructure projects combine into a network of five land corridors and a maritime Silk Road. China po…
Post-Colonialism
Post-colonialism investigates how colonial history and narratives continue to influence international relations. Rather than anarchy, hierarchies reminiscent of colonialism are believed to dominate international relations. These hierarchies are reinforced by narratives that portray non-Western co…
Arctic Council
The Arctic Council was first convened in 1996 and features eight permanent member states: the US, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Canada, Russia, Finland, and Sweden. The Arctic Council is devoted to protecting indigenous peoples, combatting climate change and pollution, and coordinating economic activ…
Rational Actor Model
The rational actor model assumes states assess policy options based on their predicted payoff. The policy with the highest payoff concerning an overarching goal is chosen. Specifically, comprehensive rationality assumes states are fully informed of payoffs. In contrast, bounded rationality believ…